The site of the Media Sphera Publishers contains materials intended solely for healthcare professionals.
By closing this message, you confirm that you are a certified medical professional or a student of a medical educational institution.

Losenkov I.S.

Mental Health Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences

Plotnikov E.V.

Mental Health Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences

Epimakhova E.V.

Mental Health Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences

Bokhan N.A.

Mental Health Research Institute of the Tomsk National Research Medical Center of the Russian Academy of Science

Lithium in the psychopharmacology of affective disorders and mechanisms of its effects on cellular physiology

Authors:

Losenkov I.S., Plotnikov E.V., Epimakhova E.V., Bokhan N.A.

More about the authors

Read: 50913 times


To cite this article:

Losenkov IS, Plotnikov EV, Epimakhova EV, Bokhan NA. Lithium in the psychopharmacology of affective disorders and mechanisms of its effects on cellular physiology. S.S. Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry. 2020;120(11):108‑115. (In Russ.)
https://doi.org/10.17116/jnevro2020120111108

Recommended articles:
Stroke: current state of the problem. S.S. Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry. 2024;(11):7-18
The gut microbiota in bipo­lar diso­rder. S.S. Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry. 2024;(11):28-33
Modern aspe­cts of chro­nic cere­bral ischemia pathogenetic therapy. S.S. Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry. 2024;(12):106-113
Neurocytoprotection adva­nces in repe­rfusion therapy. S.S. Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry. 2024;(12-2):75-88
The known and new ideas about the mechanism of action and the spectrum of effe­cts of Mexi­dol. S.S. Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry. 2025;(5):22-33
Therapeutic pote­ntial of quercetin and its deri­vatives against COVID-19. S.S. Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry. 2025;(5):44-50
Neuroprotective therapy for age-related macu­lar dege­neration. Russian Annals of Ophthalmology. 2024;(6):152-158
Neuroprotective therapy of glaucoma. Russian Annals of Ophthalmology. 2025;(1):83-90

References:

  1. Léonard A, Hantson P, Gerber G. Mutagenicity, carcinogenicity and teratogenicity of lithium compounds. Mutation Research/Reviews in Genetic Toxicology. 1995;339(3):131-137.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1110(95)90007-1
  2. Dawson EB. The relationship of tap water and physiological levels of lithium o mental hospital admission and suicide in Texas. In: Schrauzer GN, Klippel KF, eds. Lithium in biology and medicine. Weinheim, VCH Verlag; 1991;171-187. 
  3. Cade J. Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement. Med J Aust. 1949;2(10):349-352.  https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.1949.tb36912.x
  4. Shafti S, Shahveisi B. Comparison Between Lithium and Valproate in the Treatment of Acute Mania. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;28(6):718-720.  https://doi.org/10.1097/jcp.0b013e31818ce5ba
  5. Shafti S. Olanzapine vs. lithium in management of acute mania. J Affect Disord. 2010;122(3):273-276.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.08.013
  6. Geddes JR, Goodwin GM, Rendell J, Azorin JM, Cipriani A, Ostacher MJ, Morriss R, Alder N, Juszczak E. Lithium plus valproate combination therapy versus monotherapy for relapse prevention in bipolar I disorder (BALANCE): a randomised open-label trial. Lancet. 2010;375(9712):385-395.  https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(09)61828-6
  7. Bauer M, Severus E, Köhler S, Whybrow P, Angst J, Möller H. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) Guidelines for Biological Treatment of Unipolar Depressive Disorders. Part 2: Maintenance Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder-Update 2015. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2015;16(2):76-95.  https://doi.org/10.3109/15622975.2014.1001786
  8. American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with bipolar disorder (revision). Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(4):1-50. 
  9. Fairbrother F, Petzl N, Scott J, Kisely S. Lithium can cause hyperthyroidism as well as hypothyroidism: A systematic review of an under-recognised association. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2019;53(5):384-402.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419833171
  10. Won E, Kim Y. An Oldie but Goodie: Lithium in the Treatment of Bipolar Disorder through Neuroprotective and Neurotrophic Mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18(12):2679. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18122679
  11. Ott M, Stegmayr B, Salander Renberg E, Werneke U. Lithium intoxication: Incidence, clinical course and renal function — a population-based retrospective cohort study. J Psychopharmacol. 2016;30(10):1008-1019. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116652577
  12. Richardson T, Macaluso M. Clinically relevant treatment considerations regarding lithium use in bipolar disorder. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2017;13(11):1105-1113. https://doi.org/10.1080/17425255.2017.1386653
  13. Thomsen K, Shirley D. A hypothesis linking sodium and lithium reabsorption in the distal nephron. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2006;21(4):869-880.  https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfk029
  14. Thompson AN, Kim I, Panosian TD, Iverson TM, Allen TW, Nimigean CM. Mechanism of potassium-channel selectivity revealed by Na(+) and Li(+) binding sites within the KcsA pore. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2009;16(12):1317-1324. https://doi.org/10.1038/nsmb.1703
  15. Busch S, Burckhardt B, Siffert W. Expression of the human sodium/proton exchanger NHE-1 in Xenopus laevis oocytes enhances sodium/proton exchange activity and establishes sodium/lithium countertransport. Pflugers Arch. 1995;429(6):859-869.  https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00374811
  16. Kuo CC, Hess P. Characterization of the high-affinity Ca2+ binding sites in the L-type Ca2+ channel pore in rat phaeochromocytoma cells. J Physiol. 1993;466:657-662. 
  17. Jakobsson E, Argüello-Miranda O, Chiu S, Fazal Z, Kruczek J, Nunez-Corrales S, Pandit S, Pritchet L.Towards a Unified Understanding of Lithium Action in Basic Biology and its Significance for Applied Biology. J Membr Biol. 2017;250(6):587-604.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00232-017-9998-2
  18. Ivanova SA, Losenkov IS, Bohan NA. Role of glycogen synthase-3β kinase in pathogenesis of mental disorders. Zhurnal nevrologii i psikhiatrii imeni S.S. Korsakova. 2014;6:70-76. (In Russ.).
  19. Freland L, Beaulieu J. Inhibition of GSK3 by lithium, from single molecules to signaling networks. Front Mol Neurosci. 2012;5:9-15.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2012.00014
  20. Kerr F, Bjedov I, Sofola-Adesakin O. Molecular Mechanisms of Lithium Action: Switching the Light on Multiple Targets for Dementia Using Animal Models. Front Mol Neurosci. 2018;11:297.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00297
  21. Katritch V, Fenalti G, Abola E, Roth B, Cherezov V, Stevens R. Allosteric sodium in class A GPCR signaling. Trends Biochem Sci. 2014;39(5):233-244.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibs.2014.03.002
  22. Zielińska KA, Katanaev VL. Information Theory: New Look at Oncogenic Signaling Pathways. Trends Cell Biol. 2019;29(11):862-875.  https://doi.org/10/1016/j.tcb.2019.08.005
  23. Dudev T, Mazmanian K, Weng W, Grauffel C, Lim C. Free and Bound Therapeutic Lithium in Brain Signaling. Acc Chem Res. 2019;52(10):2960-2970. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00389
  24. Zwamborn RAJ, Snijders C, An N, Thomson A, Rutten BPF, de Nijs L. Wnt Signaling in the Hippocampus in Relation to Neurogenesis, Neuroplasticity, Stress and Epigenetics. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci. 2018;158:129-157.  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2018.04.005
  25. Meffre D, Grenier J, Bernard S, Courtin F, Dudev T, Shackleford G, Jafarian-Tehrani M, Massaad C. Wnt and lithium: a common destiny in the therapy of nervous system pathologies? Cell Mol Life Sci. 2014;71(7):1123-1148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-013-1378-1
  26. Malhi G, Outhred T. Therapeutic Mechanisms of Lithium in Bipolar Disorder: Recent Advances and Current Understanding. CNS Drugs. 2016;30(10):931-949.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s40263-016-0380-1
  27. González Arbeláez L, Pérez Núñez I, Mosca S. Gsk-3β Inhibitors Mimic the Cardioprotection Mediated by Ischemic Pre- and Postconditioning in Hypertensive Rats. Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:1-11.  https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/317456
  28. Talab S, Emami H, Elmi A, Nezami BG, Assa S, Deroee AF, Daneshmand A, Tavangar SM, Dehpour AR. Chronic lithium treatment protects the rat kidney against ischemia/reperfusion injury: The role of nitric oxide and cyclooxygenase pathways. Eur J Pharmacol. 2010;647(1-3):171-177.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.08.036
  29. Liu A, Fang H, Dahmen U, Dirsch O. Chronic Lithium Treatment Protects Against Liver Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Rats. Liver Transpl. 2013;19(7):762-772.  https://doi.org/10.1002/lt.23666
  30. Plotnikov E, Silachev D, Zorova L, Pevzner IB, Jankauskas SS, Zorov SD, Babenko VA, Skulachev MV, Zorov DB. Lithium salts — Simple but magic. Biochemistry (Moscow). 2014;79(8):740-749.  https://doi.org/10.1134/s0006297914080021
  31. Ngok-Ngam P, Watcharasit P, Thiantanawat A, Satayavivad J. Pharmacological inhibition of GSK3 attenuates DNA damage-induced apoptosis via reduction of p53 mitochondrial translocation and Bax oligomerization in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Cell Mol Biol Lett. 2013;18(1):58-74.  https://doi.org/10.2478/s11658-012-0039-y
  32. Keshavarz M, Emamghoreishi M, Nekooeian AA, Warsh JJ, Zare HR. Increased bcl-2 Protein Levels in Rat Primary Astrocyte Culture Following Chronic Lithium Treatment. Iran J Med Sci. 2013;38(3):255-262. 
  33. Ferensztajn-Rochowiak E, Rybakowski JK. The effect of lithium on hematopoietic, mesenchymal and neural stem cells. Pharmacol Rep. 2015;68(2):224-230.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharep.2015.09.005
  34. Eslaminejad MB, Karimi N, Shahhoseini M. Chondrogenic differentiation of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells treated by GSK-3 inhibitors. Histochem Cell Biol. 2013;140(6):623-633.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00418-013-1121-x
  35. Satija NK, Sharma D, Afrin F, Tripathi RP, Gangenahalli G. High throughput transcriptome profiling of lithium stimulated human mesenchymal stem cells reveals priming towards osteoblastic lineage. PLoS One. 2013;8(1):e55769. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055769
  36. Plotnikov E, Korotkova E, Voronova OA, Dorozhko E, Bohan N, Plotnikov S. Lithium-based antioxidants: Electrochemical properties and influence on immune cells. Physiology and Pharmacology. 2015;19(2):107-113. 
  37. Walasek MA, Bystrykh L, van den Boom V, Olthof S, Ausema A, Ritsema M, Huls G, de Haan G, van Os R. The combination of valproic acid and lithium delays hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell differentiation. Blood. 2012;119(13):3050-3059. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2011-08-375386
  38. Kast RE. How lithium treatment generates neutrophilia by enhancing phosphorylation of GSK-3, increasing HIF-1 levels and how this path is important during engraftment. Bone Marrow Transplantation. 2007;41(1):23-26.  https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bmt.1705872
  39. Shin S, Wolgamott L, Tcherkezian J, Vallabhapurapu S, Yu Y, Roux PP, Yoon SO. Glycogen synthase kinase-3β positively regulates protein synthesis and cell proliferation through the regulation of translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1. Oncogene. 2014;33(13):1690-1699. https://doi.org/10.1038/onc.2013.113
  40. Shin O, Kerr F, Rogers I, Killick R, Augustin H, Gandy C, Allen MJ, Hardy J, Lovestone S, Partridge L. Inhibition of GSK-3 ameliorates Abeta pathology in an adult-onset Drosophila model of Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS Genet. 2010;6(9):e1001087. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1001087
  41. Liu ZH, Huang T, Smith CB. Lithium reverses increased rates of cerebral protein synthesis in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome. Neurobiol Dis. 2012;45(3):1145-1152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2011.12.037
  42. Suzuki H, Osawa T, Fujioka Y, Noda NN. Structural biology of the core autophagy machinery. Curr Opin Struct Biol. 2017;43:10-17.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbi.2016.09.010
  43. Motoi Y, Shimada K, Ishiguro K, Hattori N. Lithium and autophagy. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2014;5(6):432-444.  https://doi.org/10.1021/cn500056q
  44. Khan A, Jamwal S, Bijjem KR, Prakash A, Kumar P. Neuroprotective effect of hemeoxygenase-1/glycogen synthase kinase-3β modulators in 3-nitropropionic acid-induced neurotoxicity in rats. Neuroscience. 2015;287:66-77.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.12.018
  45. Epimakhova EV, Losenkov IS, Roshchina OV, Plotnikov EV. Evaluation of cytoprotective and antioxidant effect of pyruvate of lithium on peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients with alcoholism. Voprosy Narkologii. 2018;(12):36-47. (In Russ.).
  46. Baxter PS, Hardingham GE. Adaptive regulation of the brain’s antioxidant defences by neurons and astrocytes. Free RadicBiol Med. 2016;100:147-152.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.06.027
  47. Castillo-Quan JI, Li L, Kinghorn KJ, Ivanov DK, Tain LS, Slack C, Kerr F, Nespital T, Thornton J, Hardy J, Bjedov I, Partridge L. Lithium Promotes Longevity through GSK3/NRF2-Dependent Hormesis. Cell Rep. 2016;15(3):638-650.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2016.03.041
  48. Plotnikov E, Voronova O, Linert W, Martemianov D, Korotkova E, Dorozhko E, Astashkina A, Martemianova I, Ivanova S, Bokhan N. Antioxidant and Immunotropic Properties of some Lithium Salts. J App Pharm Sci. 2016;6(1):086-089.  https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2016.600115
  49. Plotnikov E, Korotkova E, Voronova O. Lithium salts of Krebs cycle substrates as potential normothymic antioxidant agents. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 2018;10(4):240-245.  https://doi.org/10.4103/JPBS.JPBS_140_18
  50. Plotnikov E, Prokopieva V, Yarygina E, Losenkov I. Lithium ascorbate as a protector of human blood biomolecules under ethanol impact. National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2017;8(1):82-86.  https://doi.org/10.5455/njppp.2018.8.0935812102017
  51. Plotnikov E, Losenkov I, Epimakhova E, Bohan N. Protective effects of pyruvic acid salt against lithium toxicity and oxidative damage in human blood mononuclear cells. Adv Pharm Bull. 2019;9(2):302-306.  https://doi.org/10.15171/apb.2019.035
  52. Prokopeva VD, Plotnikov EV, Yarygina EG, Bokhan NA. Protective effect of carnosine and organic lithium salts in ethanol-induced oxidative damage of plasma proteins and lipids in healthy individuals and patients with alcoholism. Biomeditsinskaya Khimiya. 2019;65(1):28-32. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.18097/PBMC20196501028
  53. Pitasi CL, Liu J, Gausserès B, Pommier G, Delangre E, Armanet M, Cattan P, Mégarbane B, Hanak AS, Maouche K, Bailbé D, Portha B, Movassat J. Implication of glycogen synthase kinase 3 in diabetes-associated islet inflammation. J Endocrinol. 2020;244(1):133-148.  https://doi.org/10.1530/JOE-19-0239
  54. De-Paula VJ, Kerr DS, Scola G, Gattaz WF, Forlenza OV. Lithium Distinctly Modulates the Secretion of Pro- and Anti- Inflammatory Interleukins in Co-Cultures of Neurons and Glial Cells at Therapeutic and Sub-Therapeutic Concentrations. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2016;13(8):848-852.  https://doi.org/10.2174/1567205013666160219112612
  55. Albayrak A, Halici Z, Polat B, Karakus E, Cadirci E, Bayir Y, Kunak S, Karcioglu SS, Yigit S, Unal D, Atamanalp SS. Protective effects of lithium: a new look at an old drug with potential antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects in an animal model of sepsis. Int Immunopharmacol. 2013;16(1):35-40.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2013.03.018
  56. Maddu N, Raghavendra PB. Review of lithium effects on immune cells. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 2015;37(2):111-125.  https://doi.org/10.3109/08923973
  57. Rapoport SI. Lithium and the Other Mood Stabilizers Effective in Bipolar Disorder Target the Rat Brain Arachidonic Acid Cascade. ACS Chem. Neurosci. 2014;5(6):459-467.  https://doi.org/10.1021/cn500058v
  58. Dell’Osso L, Del Grande C, Gesi C, Carmassi C, Musetti L. A new look at an old drug: neuroprotective effects and therapeutic potentials of lithium salts. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2016;12:1687-1703. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S106479
  59. Pronin AV, Gromova OA, Sardaryan IS, Torshin I, Stel’mashuk EV, Ostrenko KS, Aleksandrova OP, Genrikhs EE, Khaspekov LG. The Adaptogenic and Neuroprotective Properties of Lithium Ascorbate Neuroscience and Behavioral. Physiology. 2018;48(4):409-415. 
  60. Fan M, Song C, Wang T, Li L, Dong Y, Jin W, Lu P. Protective effects of lithium chloride treatment on repeated cerebral ischemia — reperfusion injury in mice. Neurological Sciences. 2014;36(2):315-321.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-014-1943-x
  61. Mohammadianinejad SE, Majdinasab N, Sajedi SA, Abdollahi F, Moqaddam MM, Sadr F. The effect of lithium in post-stroke motor recovery: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2014;37(3):73-78  https://doi.org/10.1097/wnf.0000000000000028
  62. Rybakowski JK. Factors associated with lithium efficacy in bipolar disorder. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2014;22(6):353-357.  https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000006
  63. Gideons ES, Lin PY, Mahgoub M, Kavalali ET, Monteggia LM. Chronic lithium treatment elicits its antimanic effects via BDNF-TrkB dependent synaptic downscaling. Elife. 2017;6:e25480. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25480
  64. Milanesi E, Hadar A, Maffioletti E, Werner H, Shomron N, Gennarelli M, Schulze TG, Costa M, Del Zompo M, Squassina A, Gurwitz D. Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 Differentially Affects Lithium Sensitivity of Lymphoblastoid Cell Lines from Lithium Responder and Non-responder Bipolar Disorder Patients. J Mol Neurosci. 2015;56(3):681-687.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-015-0523-8
  65. Emamghoreishi M, Keshavarz M, Nekooeian AA. Acute and chronic effects of lithium on BDNF and GDNF mRNA and protein levels in rat primary neuronal, astroglial and neuroastroglia cultures. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2015;18(3):240-246. 
  66. Balashov PP, Anikina EYu, Plotnikov EV, Potapov AV, Chuchalin V.S. Comparative study of the neurotoxic effect of lithium salts. Sibirskii vestnik Psikhiatri i Inarkologii. 2008;(4):83-87. (In Russ.).
  67. Kang K, Kim YJ, Kim YH, Roh JN, Nam JM, Kim PY, Ryu WS, Lee SH, Yoon BW. Lithium pretreatment reduces brain injury after intracerebral hemorrhage in rats. Neurol Res. 2012;34(5):447-454.  https://doi.org/10.1179/1743132812Y.0000000015
  68. O’Leary OF, O’Connor RM, Cryan JF. Lithium-induced effects on adult hippocampal neurogenesis are topographically segregated along the dorso-ventral axis of stressed mice. Neuropharmacology. 2012;62(1):247-255.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.07.015
  69. Meffre D, Massaad C, Grenier J. Lithium chloride stimulates PLP and MBP expression in oligodendrocytes via Wnt/β-catenin and Akt/CREB pathways. Neuroscience. 2015;284:962-971.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.10.064
  70. Nciri R, Boujbiha MA, Jbahi S, Allagui MS, Elfeki A, Vincent C, Croute F. Cytoskeleton involvement in lithium-induced SH-SY5Y neuritogenesis and the role of glycogen synthase kinase 3β. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2015;27(3):255-263.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-014-0290-3
  71. Scheuch K, Höltje M, Budde H, Lautenschlager M, Heinz A, Ahnert-Hilger G, Priller J. Lithium modulates tryptophan hydroxylase 2 gene expression and serotonin release in primary cultures of serotonergic raphe neurons. Brain Res. 2010;1307:14-21.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.10.027
  72. Higgins GA, Allyn-Feuer A, Barbour E, Athey BD. A glutamatergic network mediates lithium response in bipolar disorder as defined by epigenome pathway analysis. Pharmacogenomics. 2015;16(14):1547-1563. https://doi.org/10.2217/pgs.15.106
  73. Zanetti MV, Otaduy MC, de Sousa RT, Gattaz WF, Busatto GF, Leite CC, Machado-Vieira R. Bimodal effect of lithium plasma levels on hippocampal glutamate concentrations in bipolar II depression: a pilot study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015;18(6):pyu058. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyu058
  74. Mavrikaki M, Schintu N, Kastellakis A, Nomikos GG, Svenningsson P, Panagis G. Effects of lithium and aripiprazole on brain stimulation reward and neuroplasticity markers in the limbic forebrain. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;24(4):630-638.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.10.014
  75. Calabrese B, Halpain S. Lithium prevents aberrant NMDA-induced F-actin reorganization in neurons. Neuroreport. 2014;25(17):1331-1337. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0000000000000268
  76. Ghasemi M, Dehpour AR. The NMDA receptor/nitric oxide pathway: a target for the therapeutic and toxic effects of lithium. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2011;32(7):420-434.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2011.03.006
  77. Wakita M, Nagami H, Takase Y, Nakanishi R, Kotani N, Akaike N. Modifications of excitatory and inhibitory transmission in rat hippocampal pyramidal neurons by acute lithium treatment. Brain Res Bull. 2015;117:39-44.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2015.07.009
  78. van Enkhuizen J, Milienne-Petiot M, Geyer MA, Young JW. Modeling bipolar disorder in mice by increasing acetylcholine or dopamine: chronic lithium treats most, but not all features. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2015;232(18):3455-3467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-015-4000-4

Email Confirmation

An email was sent to test@gmail.com with a confirmation link. Follow the link from the letter to complete the registration on the site.

Email Confirmation

We use cооkies to improve the performance of the site. By staying on our site, you agree to the terms of use of cооkies. To view our Privacy and Cookie Policy, please. click here.